Up until the present, the common view has been that Francis Xavier, a missionary and member of the Jesuits, was the first to spread Christianity to Japan. However, was he really the first?

Long ago, there was a theory which claimed that Christianity had reached Japan between the fourth century (before Buddhism had been spread in Japan) and the fifth century by Chinese and Korean people. There is a document titled “New Selection and Record of Hereditary Titles and Family Names” (circa 815 A.D.) which speaks of Chinese and Korean families that traveled to and were naturalized in Japan. This document states that the king of Yuzuki traveled to Japan twice during the times of emperors Chūai and Ōjin and was naturalized among the people there.⁽¹⁾ It is said that this clan from Yuzuki was the Hata clan, an influential family among foreign settlers in Japan.

Yoshiro Saeki, an authority on the research of Nestorianism (Jingjiao in Chinese and Keikyō in Japanese, the name of the Nestorian sect of Christianity in China), has indicated that Yuzuki originated in Persia and was a Christian nation.⁽²⁾ This means that a Christian clan from Yuzuki had come from China, passed through the Korean Peninsula, and arrived to Japan by the fourth century. It is also said that they settled in the Kansai region in places such as Kyoto and Nara, bringing with them skills related to silkworm breeding and silk fabric manufacturing, etc. The Hata clan was the largest of the foreign clans that came to settle in Ancient Japan and had a deep influence on Japanese culture, technology, and religion. Also, much research has been done on this clan starting with Hatauji no Kenkyū (“Research on the Hata Clan,” written by Yamato Iwao).⁽³⁾ The theory that the people from Yuzuki (the Hata clan) were a Christian people is a very interesting one when reflecting on past arguments. However, there is currently not enough historical evidence to support the claim, and more thorough research on the topic is expected to be done in the future.

Next, many have indicated that the story of the birth of Prince Shōtoku, who was also known as umayado no ōji (the prince of the stable door), draws parallels to that which is written in the Gospel narrative. He was born in A.D. 564, and in latter years the following account was written about him in a biography. One day, the empress (his mother) had a dream. In it, she received an oracle from Guze Bosatsu (a religious figure in Buddhism) saying, “I will borrow your womb to save the people of this world.” She became pregnant afterwards, and one day as she was walking in the palace and came across a stable, she went into labor and gave birth to Prince Shōtoku.⁽⁴⁾ According to The Chronicles of Japan, the empress was patrolling the palace when she suddenly went into labor at the door of the stable and gave a painless birth to Prince Shōtoku. He was exceedingly intelligent from an early age, and was also known as Uenomiya no Umato no Toyotomimi no Hitsugi no Miko (a title which outlines his birth at the stable along with his intelligence).⁽⁵⁾

It is evident that this record about his birth draws parallels to the birth of Jesus Christ who was born in a stable in Bethlehem. Other researchers who have focused on other similarities besides this one have believed that Nestorianism, a sect of Christianity, came from China to Japan against the backdrop of this historical context.⁽⁶⁾

Nestorius (approximately 381-451 A.D.), the person whom Nestorianism was named after, was the patriarch of Constantinople. He argued that Mary, the one who gave birth to Jesus, should not be called “Mother of God,” but rather, “Mother of Christ.” In regards to Christology, he argued that Christ is not God, but rather a God-bearer (theo-phorus), and Christ is worshiped because God exists within him*. His teachings were deemed heretical at the Council of Ephesus in 431 A.D.

It is certainly true that his position leaned strongly towards the humanity of Christ, but for those of us who adhere to modern Protestantism, it is difficult to say that it was an incredibly far stretch from orthodox Christianity. As previously mentioned, Yoshiro Saeki was an authority in Japan on the research of Nestorianism. He received a doctorate in literature from Tokyo Imperial University for his research. He also published his great work titled Keikyō no Kenkyū (“Research on Nestorianism”) in 1935 which covers his research over many years of Nestorianism. In this work, he reflects on whether Nestorius's claim was actually heretical or not. He came to the following conclusion.

For that reason, concerning which part of Nestorius's theory is actually heretical, there is nothing else besides his opposition to calling Mary the mother of God. This theory was a kind of byword at the time, and there are different theories as to what this could entail.

The view that has been held up until now that Nestorius was a heretic has largely been influenced by the Roman Catholic church, and can be said to be a biased view.

It is said that after he was deemed a heretic, he was removed from the office of patriarch, traveled to many different areas, and eventually passed away in Libya. However, those who supported his position fled from Asia Minor to Persia and the Arabian Peninsula to escape from persecution from the Roman Catholic church. In Persia they received protection from the King, allowing them to develop further and open a school of theology which had as many as 800 students in its prime. Nestorians were also very passionate about world missions, evangelizing to nearly all of the Silk Road which spanned from Central Asia to China. Missionary historians suggest that “The Nestorians were the most missional church in the entire world.”

*Note from the translator: Nestorius argued that Jesus was both human and God, but that he had two separate natures, a concept known as prosopic union as opposed to hypostatic union. The usage of the word “Christ” here appears to specifically refer to his human nature and not his God nature.

Alopen, a Nestorian missionary from Persia, spread Nestorianism to China in 635 A.D. It flourished under the protection of a successive line of emperors in the Tang dynasty under the name of Da Qin Jingjiao. Jingjiao translates to “the shining teaching,” whereas Da Qin is likely a reference to Rome.

In 781 A. D., the famous Xi'an Stele was built in the capital of Chang'an. It was made by a Nestorian missionary from Persia named Adam, and is written in both Syriac and Chinese. The original text along with a modern Japanese translation and annotations have been written in "Keikyō," a book written and edited by Kazuhiko Kawaguchi.⁽⁹⁾ The inscription on the stele consists of worship unto the triune God, the depravity of mankind and salvation through the cross, the beginning of the church by the Holy Spirit, among other things. Concerning practical forms of Nestorian worship, it mentions praying seven times a day and offering praise, giving without becoming attached to wealth, cleansing one's self, worshiping on the Sabbath, etc. Lastly, it mentions the relationship between Nestorianism and emperors up until the sixth emperor of the Tang dynasty and how much these emperors protected its teachings.

Japan sent many ambassadors and students to China during the Tang dynasty and adopted much of its culture, thought, religion, and technology. For this reason, it is very plausible that Nestorianism, which was flourishing at that time, came to Japan by way of these Japanese missions to Tang China. It is believed that the story about the aforementioned Prince Shōtoku came to be due to this relation to Nestorianism.

Also, according to "The Chronicles of Japan," a Persian named Li-Mitsuei was granted a position in the Japanese court in 736 A.D. There is a theory that he was a Nestorian physician, but it is not based on anything outside the realm of speculation.

Kūkai and Nestorianism

One thing that many researchers focus on is the relationship between Kūkai (Kōbō Daishi) and Nestorianism. Kūkai (774-835 A.D.) went to China during the Tang dynasty in 804 at the age of 31 and studied Buddhist scriptures and Sanskrit in Chang'an. He studied under Hannya Sanzō, a monk from Kashmir, India. Hannya Sanzō worked together with Adam (Jingjing in Chinese), a Nestorian who made the Xi'an Stele and translated Buddhist scriptures. For that reason, it is believed that Kūkai came to know about Nestorianism through Adam. When Kūkai stayed in Chang'an, he lived in Ximing Temple and Adam lived in Da Qin Temple, only a mere 1,500 meters away, so Kūkai might have also visited Da Qin Temple.

The author Ryōtarō Shiba expounded on these possibilities. In his book Kūkai no Fūkei written in 1975, he states that Kūkai might have visited Da Qin Temple and read the Xi'an Stele. As a result, he may have become interested in Nestorian doctrine and met with Adam himself.⁽¹¹⁾ Another author whose literary imagination strengthened this idea was Chin Shunshin. He wrote Mandara no Hito: Kūkai-kyūhō-den in 1984, part of which talks about Kūkai coming across Nestorianism. In the book, Kūkai's teacher Hannya Sanzō tells him “You must broaden your horizons,” so Kūkai visits Da Qin Temple. Upon arriving, Hannya Sanzō admonishes him saying “There is another religion you can learn about here,” and invites him to Adam's room. He then proceeds to hear about Christianity and Christ's resurrection from Adam.⁽¹²⁾

The way the story plays out here is rather forced, but it's still a moving drama about how the two worlds of Western Christianity and Eastern Buddhism meet.

After arriving back home, Kūkai started Shingon Buddhism which involved practices of making the sign of the cross and abhisheka, a ceremony in which water is poured over the head, showing similarities between the two religions. Moreover, since before, there have been many people who have believed that Christianity is alluded to in Iroha (a famous Japanese poem).

ゑ　あ　や　ら　よ　ち　い
ひ　さ　ま　む　た　り　ろ
も　き　け　う　れ　に　は
せ　ゆ　ふ　ゐ　そ　る　に
す　め　こ　の　つ　を　ほ
　　み　え　お　ね　わ　へ
　　し　て　く　な　か　と

Although its scent still lingers on
  the form of a flower has scattered away
For whom will the glory
  of this world remain unchanged?
Arriving today at the yonder side
  of the deep mountains of evanescent existence
We shall never allow ourselves to drift away
  intoxicated, in the world of shallow dreams.

In the original Japanese, when you split Iroha into seven lines and take the last symbol of each line, it spells out "Toga nakute shisu" which can be translated as “Died without sin,” and it is said that this is an allusion to Christ's death which atoned for sins. Also, Tora Yoshida, a researcher of Nestorianism, gave attention to the fact that the phrase “The way does not have a constant name, and the holy does not have a constant form” which appears in the Xi'an stele matches the conclusion of Sangō Shiiki, a book written by Kūkai.⁽¹³⁾

However, I have read the two volumes of the "Complete Works of Kūkai" and did not find anything that seemed to be influenced by Nestorianism. On the contrary, there were significant differences in essential beliefs, such as the teaching that you could become a Buddha in this life in your current body by training, the denial of the immortality of the soul, etc.⁽¹⁴⁾ Hypothetically even if Kūkai or someone else had brought Nestorianism to Japan during the Tang dynasty, it was a long shot from what the Bible actually teaches.

Concerning Alterations to Nestorianism

Nestorians compromised greatly with traditional Chinese thought and the government to receive protection from the Emperor to do missions in China. In Shina Kirisuto Kyō no Kenkyū (“Research on Nestorianism in China”), Saeki stated that in regards to Nestorian missions in China, it is clear that “worship of the empire was advocated” and that the idea that Jesus Christ is the only savior of humanity was “renounced and not reflected upon.”⁽¹⁵⁾

He researched the distinctive features of Nestorianism in China and summarized them into ten points. These consisted of the opposition to calling Mary the mother of God, the transubstantiation of communion, Purgatory, the refusal of clergy being single, the preservation of the eight ranks of monks, etc.⁽¹⁶⁾

It is believed that the most important teachings of the Gospel, namely salvation from sin by Jesus Christ's death on the cross and the teaching of eternal life, were not central to the Nestorian message in China. For that reason, even if Nestorianism theoretically had made it to Japan during the Tang dynasty, it was only a peripheral, surface-level type of Christianity and did not contain the core elements the Gospel.

Fragment of an Ancient Syriac Bible Found

In April, 2004, a fragment of an Ancient Syriac Bible which is believed to be from the 6^th century was discovered in the Mie Prefecture. The fragment contains Romans 6:9-11:4 and was written on parchment. The person who originally owned this fragment was a descendant of Keisuke Ōtori, a politician active from the Edo Period to the Meiji Period, and the fragment was kept safely for generations in the Ōtori family's storage. It is a recent discovery, and a famous Leiden University professor by the name of Takamitsu Muraoka confirmed that it was in fact a valuable Ancient Syriac Bible fragment from the 6th century.⁽¹⁷⁾ Norio Yabunouchi, the director of the Institute for Advanced Studies and the person who found and currently owns the fragment, believes that the fragment may be related to Nestorianism being spread in Japan, stating, ”Keisuke Ōtori was born to a family of doctors in the Harima Province (a section of the current-day Hyōgo Prefecture) where the Nestorian Hata clan defected to, and the fact that there were many doctors who were Nestorian missionaries may help shed some light on the subject.” Also, he suggests that it was spread to Japan before sakoku, the isolationist foreign policy, was adopted from the Asuka Period to the Edo Period.⁽¹⁸⁾

According to Saeki's research, it is a known fact that Nestorians used Syriac Bibles as a standard regardless of the country they were in. If this fragment serves as evidence that Nestorians came to Ancient Japan, it is a very valuable discovery and we can hopeful for further research on the topic.

As previously stated, much research has been done and there have been many discussions revolving around the possibility of people evangelizing in Japan before the arrival of Francis Xavier. One discussion that cannot be separated from this issue is the Japanese-Jewish common ancestry theory. This theory claims that the ten lost tribes of Israel came to Japan and became a part of the roots of the Japanese race. This belief may have showed up as far back as the early Meiji Period, and Katsuisa Sakai along with Zenichirō Oyabe were among pre-World War II Christians who asserted the theory was true. Oyabe received a doctrate from Yale University, and he wrote Nihon Oyobi Nihon no Kigen (”Japan and Its Origins”) in 1929. In this book, he argues that Israeli blood flows through English and Japanese people.⁽¹⁹⁾

Jūji Nakada and the Japanese-Jewish Common Ancestry Theory

This theory supported by people such as Oyabe lit a spark in Jūji Nakada, a supervisor of the Holiness movement, and he added his own Biblical intepretation to the theory along with his own personal view about the Second Coming. In the midst of revival with the Holiness movement at the center, he published a collection of lectures titled Seisho yori Mitaru Nihon (”A Look at Japan from the Scriptures”) in the beginning of 1933. In this collection, he claimed that ”The Japanese race has Israeli blood,” but the supporting arguments for his claim are groundless and forced. For example, they consist of ideas stating that Japanese Shinto shrine architecture is similar to that of the Jewish Temple, the practice of hanging the Japanese mugwort and acorus calamus plants on doors during Japanese seasonal festivals draw striking similarities to the Festival of Tabernacles, and that Japanese mugwort rice cakes represent bread with bitter herbs inside.⁽²⁰⁾ His argument that many different Japanese words and place names are similar to what the Jews have feels more like a play on words than anything. He further developed his personal interpretation of the Scriptures and stressed that ”We, the Japanese people, have a mission in relation to the Second Coming and the restoration of Israel which is connected to it.” He was in favor of Japanese invasions and their rule over the surrounding regions to the west such as the rule over Korea, the rule over Manchuria, etc., and he asserted that Japan becoming a larger nation would help save the chosen people of Israel.

In 1933, he argued strongly that the Second Coming was impending, and he taught that it wasn't time anymore for evangelization and the forming of new churches, but that the church should be praying incessantly for the Lord to return and for Israel's restoration. His ideas went against the original evangelistic principles of the Holiness movement, resulting in a tragic division in the Holiness church. Concerning the details of this split, I would encourage you to read my book Nihon ni okeru Fukuinha no Rekishi (”The History of Evangelicalism in Japan”).⁽²¹⁾ This event serves as a historical lesson which shows that focusing too much on the Japanese-Jewish common ancestry theory can make one susceptible to the dangers of straying from orthodox Christianity.

The Japanese-Jewish Common Ancestry Theory in Recent Years

Observing recent trends, the Japanese-Jewish common ancestry theory is becoming popular again. Although there are differences in the claims and points being stressed, in just the 26-year span from 1974 to 2000, 26 books have been published on the topic in Japan. That's one book per year! Notable authors include Marvin Tokayer, Yutaka Koishi, Masami Uno, Arimasa Kubo, father and son Kenny and Ken Joseph, among others. These authors have further expounded on the original common ancestry theory by adding linguistic and ethnological research done afterwards to it, and recently they have even used DNA theory to make their claims. These books have been published multiple times by general publishing companies like Tokuma Shoten and Bungeisha, so its believed that they are being read by many from a non-Christian audience. For example, Marvin Tokayer's book Yudaya to Nihon: Nazo no Kodaishi (”Judah and Japan: An Ancient Historical Mystery,” published by Sanno University) which speaks about the similarities between Japanese Shinto shrines and the Jewish Temple, how Nestorians were Jews, etc., was printed 47 times over after it's original publishing in 1975 until the year 2000. These books claim that the central group of the ten lost tribes of Israel came to Ancient Japan becoming a part of the roots of the Japanese race, they associate this with the spread of Nestorianism in Japan, and they say that all of this had a definitive impact on the nation's thought, religion, and culture.

Concerning motives for making these claims, it has gone beyond simple academic interest, and it is strongly evident that there is a desire for these ideas to be used to break open a new avenue for spreading the Gospel in Japan. For example, if you read Kakusareta Jūjika no Kuni: Nihon (”Land of the Hidden Cross: Japan” by Ken Joseph), as the author seeks to find the true roots of the Japanese people, he explains that Christianity had reached Japan not only before Francis Xavier but before Buddhism too, and that it greatly influenced the hearts and minds of the Japanese people. He also fervently speaks about how Christianity is not simply a foreign religion, but one that is closely tied to the roots of the Japanese people, and that going back to this teaching of their ancestors is what will help establish their true identity.⁽²²⁾

Yutaka Koishi, an advocate of the the Japanse-Jewish common ancestry theory, is the chief editor of Shalom Missionary Church, of which can be said is one of the main proponents of the theory. He argues the following concerning the connection between the theory and missions.

The common ancestry theory is a means of connecting the Japanese people to the Bible up until the New Testament, whereas missions connect them to the Bible starting from the New Testament... The purpose of the common ancestry theory is to, by asking the question 'Are my roots really written here in the Bible?' (in this case the Old Testament), make the Japanese people take an interest in the Bible up until the New Testament, whereas missions leads them to actually read the Bible and eventually come to salvation in Christ.⁽²³⁾

The common ancestry theory is currently just a theory based on speculation, but from here on out we can be hopeful that we will approach a time where more evidence will be found, the theory will become fact, and speculation will become the main issue.

If you sift through Japan's missionary history, you can find a case where the common ancestry theory drove someone to evangelize to Japan. That someone was Bernard Bettelheim (1811-1870), a forerunner for Protestant missions in Japan and evangelist to Ryūkyū. He was a Jew born in Hungary and became a doctor. Although he was Jewish, he converted to Christianity, married an English woman, and became a citizen of England. Bettelheim was accepted as the first missionary of the Loochoo Naval Mission, an organization founded by people of the Church of England which adhered to evangelicalism, and he arrived at Naha with his family in 1846. At that time the Ryūkyū Kingdom was under the rule of the Satsuma Domain, and Christianity was prohibited just like in mainland Japan. He did not give up in the face of fierce persecution and the death of local officials and commoners alike, but evangelized in Ryūkyū for over eight years and converted a number of people. This was the first Protestant mission in Japan. Because he was a doctor he also treated the sick, and made the first vaccination in Ryūkyū for smallpox. He was also a skilled linguist. He studied the Ryūkyū language and translated Luke, John, Acts, and Romans, which he later published. Also, when Matthew Perry passed through Ryūkyū on his naval expedition to Japan, he played a considerable role in the opening of the country.

One facet that fanned the flame of his zeal to evangelize to Japan was the common ancestry theory. In latter years, according to Elizabeth his wife, one of his motives for applying to the Loochoo Naval Mission was because he wanted to track down the ten lost tribes of Israel which had disappeared in the East long ago.⁽²⁴⁾ And so, he went to live in Ryūkyū, and as he got to know the people there, his belief that they were the descendents of the ten lost tribes of Israel grew deeper. He researched their way of life, customs, language, and expressions which led him to feel certain of the similarities between them and the Jews.

Just as we saw with the arguments made for the Japanese-Jewish common ancestry theory up until now, it is a long stretch to say that this is enough evidence to be sure that the people of Ryūkyū were descended from the Jews. However, it can be said that this confidence which Bettelheim possessed in their similarities is what drove him to preach the Gospel in Japan.

Here is what I, the author, personally believe. There is a possibility that the Gospel may have reached Japan before Francis Xavier arrived, but there is not enough historical evidence, and currently we can't say that it's a well established fact. Also, concerning the Japanese-Jewish common ancestry theory, there are many bold hypotheses and speculations about it, but the theory requires heavier scrutiny from a historical angle. However, it cannot be ignored when researching Christian history and people's motives for doing missions in Japan, and ideally, further advancements in research should be made along with constructive dialogue.

At any rate, even if it didn't include the central facets of the Gospel, it is believed that Christianity arrived via different routes and methods, potentially having an effect on the geistesgeschichte (intellectual history) of the Japanese people. Perhaps we can say it was like "hidden underground water" so to speak, flowing through the geistesgeschichte of Japan and eventually resurfacing upon the arrival of Francis Xavier.

Footnotes

1. 「新撰姓氏録」、『神道大系 古典編六』神道大系編纂会、一九八一年、六四五、七六三頁
2. 『佐伯好郎遺稿並伝 下』法本義弘編、大空社、一九九六年、一七〇五〜一七一七頁
3. 『秦氏の研究』大和岩雄、大和書房、一九九三年
4. 『上宮聖徳太子伝補闕記』。なお本書においては、「聖徳太子の研究」、『久米邦武著作集 第一巻』（吉川弘文館、一九八八年）一七頁より引用
5. 「日本書紀 二」、『新編日本古典文学全集 三』小学館、一九九六年、五三二〜五三三頁
6. 『日本精神史とキリスト教』関根文之介、創元社、一九六二年、一八〜二〇頁。そのほか久米邦武もそのように考えている。
7. 『景教の研究』佐伯好郎、名著普及会、一九三五年（一九七八年復刻）、二五八頁
8. From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya, Ruth Tucker, Zondervan, 1983, p. 54.
9. 『景教---シルクロードを東に向かったキリスト教』川口一彦編著、イーグレープ、二〇〇二年
10. 『続日本紀 2』直木孝次郎他訳注、平凡社、一九八八年、四〇頁
11. 『空海の風景 上巻』司馬遼太郎、中央公論社、二〇〇五年新装改版、三二七〜三二八頁
12. 『曼陀羅の人---空海求法伝 中巻』陳舜臣、毎日新聞社、一九九四年、一二九〜一三七頁
13. 「景教の東方伝導」吉田寅、『アジア・キリスト教の歴史』所収、日本基督教団出版局、一九九一年、四五頁
14. 『空海全集 第一巻』空海・弘法大師空海全集編集委員会、筑摩書房、一九七三年、五四六頁、『空海全集 第二巻』五八、二二四頁
15. 『支那基督教の研究 1』佐伯好郎、名著普及研究会、一九四三年（一九七九年復刻）、一四四頁
16. 『佐伯好郎遺稿並伝 下』一六二二〜一六二三頁
17. 「クリスチャン新聞」二〇〇四年五月二日号
18. 「キリスト新聞」二〇〇四年四月二十四日号、「クリスチャン新聞」二〇〇四年五月二日号
19. 『日本及日本国民之起源』小谷部全一郎、厚生閣、一九三二年、一六九〜三九三頁
20. 『中田重治全集 第二巻』米田勇編、中田重治全集刊行会、一九七五年、六八〜七五頁
21. 『日本における福音派の歴史』中村敏、いのちのことば社、二〇〇〇年、一二七〜一三〇頁
22. 『隠された十字架の国・日本』ケン・ジョセフ、徳間書店、二〇〇〇年
23. 「声石 第四二号」小石豊、シャローム宣教会、二〇〇〇年六月一日号
24. 『英宣教医ベッテルハイム---琉球伝導の九年間』照屋善彦、人文書院、二〇〇四年、二一二頁